In Part 1, we explored the Neolithic Revolution (8,000-3,000 BCE)—the transformative shift from hunting-gathering to agriculture and settled village life.
We examined:
- V. Gordon Childe’s “Neolithic Revolution” concept and its critiques
- Geographical spread across India: from Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) in the northwest to later sites in Kashmir, Northeast, Deccan, and Gangetic Plains
- Multiple theories explaining agricultural origins: climate change, population pressure, social competition, and co-evolution
- Key insight: Revolutionary in consequences, evolutionary in process
Neolithic Age Part-2
Now in Part 2, we examine the actual life of Neolithic communities—their technology, settlements, economy, social organization, and cultural practices.
III. KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF NEOLITHIC AGE
A. AGRICULTURE: The Food-Producing Revolution
1. Concept of Domestication
Domestication Defined:
- Human control over reproduction of plants/animals
- Selective breeding for desired traits
- Genetic changes distinguishing from wild forms
- Mutual dependency between humans and domesticates
The Domestication Syndrome (Plants):
- Loss of natural seed dispersal: Seeds stay on plant
- Larger seeds/grains: Selection for bigger produce
- Simultaneous ripening: All seeds mature together
- Loss of germination inhibition: Seeds sprout readily
- Reduced bitter compounds: More palatable
Archaeological Evidence:
- Morphological changes in seeds/bones
- Size increase in grains
- Association with human settlements
- Storage facilities
- Agricultural tools
2. Crops Cultivated in Neolithic India
Regional Crop Patterns:
A. Northwestern India (Mehrgarh Region):
| Crop | Evidence | Significance |
| Wheat (Triticum) | Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) | Primary staple, West Asian origin |
| Barley (Hordeum) | Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) | Secondary staple, drought-resistant |
| Dates | Mehrgarh | Tree cultivation |
| Cotton | Mehrgarh (6000 BCE) | World’s earliest cotton cultivation |
| Jujube | Various sites | Fruit tree |
Significance: Shows direct diffusion from Fertile Crescent (wheat, barley) plus independent cotton domestication.
B. Gangetic Plains and Vindhyas:
| Crop | Evidence | Significance |
| Rice (Oryza sativa) | Koldihwa, Mahagara (~6000 BCE, debated) | Indigenous domestication |
| Rice | Chirand (2000 BCE, certain) | Wet rice cultivation |
| Wheat | Later introduction | Diffusion from Northwest |
| Millets | Various sites | Dry farming |
| Lentils (Masoor) | Gangetic sites | Protein source |
Significance: Independent rice domestication in Gangetic plains, parallel to China.
C. South India:
| Crop | Evidence | Significance |
| Millets (Ragi, Jowar) | Hallur, Piklihal | Adapted to drier conditions |
| Horse gram | Ash mound sites | Legume, nitrogen-fixing |
| Green gram | Karnataka sites | Pulse crop |
| Black gram | Karnataka sites | Pulse crop |
| Cotton | Later sites | Textile production |
Significance: Distinct agricultural package adapted to Deccan ecology.
D. Northeast India:
| Crop | Evidence | Significance |
| Rice | Daojali Hading | Early rice cultivation |
| Yams, Taro | Inferred | Root crop agriculture |
Significance: Connection with Southeast Asian agricultural complex.
E. Kashmir Valley:
| Crop | Evidence | Significance |
| Wheat | Burzahom, Gufkral | High-altitude adaptation |
| Barley | Burzahom | Cold-resistant crop |
| Lentils | Kashmir sites | Protein source |
Significance: High-altitude agriculture, challenging environment.
Agricultural Diversity Significance:
- Multiple domestication centers: Not single origin
- Ecological adaptation: Crops suited to regional conditions
- Indigenous innovation: Rice, millets, cotton independently developed
- Foundation for later: Agricultural patterns persist to present
3. Agricultural Techniques and Tools
Farming Methods:
A. Slash-and-Burn (Shifting Cultivation):
- Method: Cut forest, burn, plant in ash-enriched soil
- Duration: Farm for 2-3 years, move when fertility declines
- Evidence: Burnt layers at sites, forest clearance
- Regions: Hilly areas, Northeast, parts of Deccan
- Modern Parallel: Jhum cultivation (still practiced by tribals)
- Sustainability: Works with low population density
- Impact: Gradual deforestation
B. Sedentary Agriculture:
- Method: Permanent fields, annual cultivation
- Techniques:
- Flood retreat farming (rivers)
- Rain-fed agriculture (monsoon)
- Irrigation (small-scale, channels)
- Evidence: Permanent settlements, storage facilities
- Regions: River valleys (Indus, Ganga), alluvial plains
- Advantage: Higher productivity, supports villages
- Challenge: Requires soil fertility maintenance
C. Tools for Agriculture:
Stone Tools (Polished/Ground):
| Tool | Description | Function | Archaeological Evidence |
| Polished Stone Axe | Ground to smooth edge | Forest clearing, woodworking | Ubiquitous at Neolithic sites |
| Celt | T-shaped axe head | Heavy-duty cutting | Burzahom, Deccan sites |
| Adze | Axe perpendicular to handle | Shaping wood, building | Kashmir sites |
| Stone Hoe | Flattened blade | Tilling soil | Gangetic sites |
| Stone Sickle | Curved blade | Harvesting grain | Mehrgarh, Chirand |
| Digging Stick | Pointed wooden pole | Planting, digging | Inferred, no preservation |
| Stone Quern | Flat grinding stone | Grinding grain to flour | All sites |
| Pestle and Mortar | Pounding tools | Processing grains, spices | Widespread |
Innovation – Polished Stone Tools:
- Manufacturing: Grinding stone on abrasive rock
- Advantage over chipped tools:
- Sharper, more durable edge
- Better for woodworking (building houses)
- More efficient for agriculture
- Symbolic of Neolithic (defining feature)
- Time investment: Hours to make one axe (value high)
- Trade: Polished axes traded over long distances
Wooden Tools (Inferred, rarely preserved):
- Digging sticks
- Ploughs (possibly late Neolithic)
- Handles for stone tools
- Storage containers
Bone Tools:
- Needles (sewing)
- Awls (leather working)
- Points (hunting)
- Harpoons (fishing)
Agricultural Process:
- Land Clearing: Using polished axes to cut trees
- Soil Preparation: Hoeing, possibly ploughing (late)
- Planting: Broadcasting seeds or dibbling (planting sticks)
- Weeding: Manual removal of competing plants
- Harvesting: Sickles for cutting grain
- Processing: Grinding stones for flour
- Storage: Granaries, pits, pottery vessels
4. Animal Domestication (Pastoralism)
Domesticated Animals in Neolithic India:
A. Major Livestock:
| Animal | Earliest Evidence | Primary Uses | Significance |
| Cattle (Bos) | Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) | Ploughing, milk, meat, dung (fuel) | Most important, sacred in Hinduism |
| Sheep | Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) | Wool, meat, milk | West Asian origin |
| Goat | Mehrgarh, Bagor | Meat, milk, leather | Adaptable to arid zones |
| Pig | Chirand, Burzahom | Meat, scavenging | Omnivorous, easy to raise |
| Dog | Mehrgarh, Burzahom (abundant) | Hunting, herding, protection, companionship | First domesticate (Mesolithic) |
| Buffalo (Water Buffalo) | Gangetic sites (later) | Heavy ploughing, milk | Indigenous domestication? |
| Chicken | Later Neolithic/Chalcolithic | Eggs, meat | Southeast Asian origin |
| Horse | Absent in Neolithic | – | Appears Bronze Age (debated) |
B. Evidence for Domestication:
- Skeletal morphology: Size reduction, bone structure changes
- Age profiles: More juveniles (culling for meat)
- Bone pathology: Work-related injuries (ploughing)
- Artistic depictions: Cattle in rock art
- Stable associations: Found at settlement sites
C. Pastoral Economy:
- Agro-pastoralism: Combination of farming and herding
- Transhumance: Seasonal movement of herds (mountains/plains)
- Specialized pastoralists: Some communities focus on herding
- Products: Meat, milk, leather, wool, bone, dung (fuel, fertilizer)
D. Cattle Centrality:
- Economic: Ploughing (increase productivity), dairy (nutrition)
- Social: Wealth indicator (number of cattle = status)
- Religious: Sacred animal (roots in Neolithic?)
- Ritual: Cattle in burials, art
- Continuity: Cattle veneration persists in Hinduism
Ash Mounds of South India (Unique Phenomenon):
Description:
- Large mounds of ash and burnt dung
- 3-4 meters high, 100+ meters diameter
- Found: Piklihal, Utnur, Kupgal (Karnataka)
Interpretation:
- Cattle penning sites: Enclosed areas for large herds
- Ritual burning: Periodic burning of accumulated dung
- Possible explanation:
- Pastoral ritual (fire ceremony)
- Pest control (burning to eliminate insects)
- Site marker (boundary, territorial)
- Shows intensive pastoralism in Deccan
Significance: Unique to South Indian Neolithic, shows regional pastoral tradition.
B. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS: From Camps to Villages
1. Permanent Villages
Revolution in Settlement:
- Paleolithic: Temporary camps, constant movement
- Mesolithic: Semi-permanent camps, seasonal rounds
- Neolithic: Permanent villages, year-round occupation
Why Permanence?:
- Agriculture requires staying: Crops need tending
- Storage necessary: Granaries attached to settlements
- Investment in houses: Substantial structures built
- Social ties: Community bonds strengthen
- Territorial attachment: “Our land” concept
- Property accumulation: Not feasible when nomadic
Village Characteristics:
A. Size:
- Early Neolithic: Small hamlets (10-20 houses, 50-150 people)
- Later Neolithic: Larger villages (100+ houses, 500-1000 people)
- Examples:
- Mehrgarh: Expanded from hamlet to large settlement over millennia
- Burzahom: Substantial village with multiple occupation phases
B. Layout and Planning:
- Organic growth: No formal planning (unlike later Harappan)
- Clustered houses: Near each other for social cohesion, defense
- Central open spaces: Communal areas
- Peripheral location: Granaries, cattle pens often at edges
- Cemeteries: Usually separate from habitation area
C. Duration:
- Villages occupied for generations, even centuries
- Multi-period sites common (continuous occupation)
- Rebuilding on same spot (tells/mounds form)
2. House Architecture
Regional Variations in Architecture:
A. Mehrgarh (Baluchistan) Architecture:
Mud-Brick Houses:
- Material: Sun-dried mud bricks (adobe)
- Shape: Rectangular, multi-room structures
- Size: 3-4 meters × 2-3 meters per room
- Layout:
- Storage rooms (granaries within house)
- Living quarters
- Courtyards
- Walls: Thick (50-70 cm) for insulation
- Foundation: Stone or brick
- Roof: Flat, mud thatch on wooden beams
- Windows: Small, for ventilation
- Doors: Narrow openings
Urban-like Features (Later Phases):
- Compartmentalized storage: Multiple storage units
- Craft areas: Specialized rooms for bead-making, tools
- Suggests: Emerging social complexity
Significance: Shows sophisticated architecture early in Neolithic, precursor to Harappan urban planning.
B. Burzahom (Kashmir) Architecture – Most Unique!
Pit Dwellings (Early Phase):
- Structure: Underground pits (2-4 meters deep)
- Shape: Circular or oval
- Diameter: 2-5 meters at surface
- Access: Ladder through narrow opening
- Floor: Flat, compacted earth
- Hearth: Central fireplace (charcoal, ash deposits)
- Advantages:
- Insulation: Protection from extreme cold
- Temperature stability: Underground warmer in winter
- Wind protection: Subterranean location
- Energy efficient: Less heating needed
Why Pit Dwellings?:
- Harsh climate: Kashmir winters extremely cold
- Adaptation: Ingenious solution to environment
- Parallels: Similar structures in Central Asia, China (cultural connection?)
Later Phase Architecture:
- Surface mud-brick houses: Rectangular structures
- Transition: Climate improvement or cultural change?
- Rubble foundation: Stone base, mud brick walls
Associated Features:
- Post holes: Wooden superstructure possible
- Storage pits: Grain storage outside houses
- Animal shelters: Separate structures for livestock
C. Deccan and South India:
Wattle-and-Daub Construction:
- Structure: Wooden frame (wattle) plastered with mud (daub)
- Advantages: Readily available materials, easy construction
- Impermanence: Few preserved (organic materials decay)
- Evidence: Post-holes, burnt daub fragments
Stone Tool Workshops:
- Areas with concentrations of stone tools, debitage
- Suggests specialized production zones
D. Gangetic Plains:
Mud Structures:
- Similar to Mehrgarh but less substantial initially
- Organic materials (bamboo, thatch) more common
- Wattle-and-daub likely
- Evidence limited (alluvial deposition buries sites)
3. Settlement Features
A. Storage Facilities (Critical Neolithic Feature):
Types:
- Granaries:
- Above-ground structures
- Raised floor (prevent moisture, rodents)
- Separate from houses or attached
- Evidence: Mehrgarh has specialized storage rooms
- Storage Pits:
- Underground cavities
- Lined with clay or grass
- Covered with stone slabs or wooden lids
- Common at Burzahom, Chirand
- Large Pottery Jars:
- Storage vessels (up to 1 meter tall)
- For grains, liquids
- Found in houses
Significance of Storage:
- Surplus production: More than immediate needs
- Food security: Insurance against lean periods
- Property concept: Stored grain = wealth
- Inequality potential: Differential storage capacity
- Planning ability: Foresight for future needs
B. Hearths and Ovens:
- Hearths: Firepit for cooking, warmth
- Ovens: Clay-lined, dome-shaped (baking)
- Evidence: Ash, charcoal deposits, burnt clay
- Ubiquitous: Every house has hearth
C. Craft Areas:
- Pottery kilns
- Bead-making workshops (Mehrgarh)
- Stone tool production zones
- Bone tool making
- Indicates: Craft specialization beginning
D. Animal Pens:
- Enclosed areas for livestock
- Ash mounds (South India)
- Cattle within or near settlements
E. Communal Spaces:
- Open areas for gatherings
- Possible ritual/ceremonial spaces
- Social interaction zones
C. POTTERY: The Ceramic Revolution
1. Significance of Pottery
Why Pottery Matters:
Practical Functions:
- Storage: Grain, liquids, oil
- Cooking: Heat-resistant vessels
- Serving: Food presentation
- Transport: Carrying water, goods
- Trade: Durable containers for exchange
Archaeological Significance:
- Dating: Pottery styles change over time (chronology)
- Cultural identity: Distinctive styles mark cultural groups
- Trade networks: Non-local pottery shows exchange
- Technology level: Sophistication indicates skill
- Artistic expression: Decoration reveals aesthetics
- Abundant: Pottery sherds most common find
Why Pottery in Neolithic?:
- Sedentism: Pottery heavy, not portable (nomads can’t carry)
- Agriculture: Need for storage, cooking grains
- Surplus: Large vessels for storing excess production
- Specialization: Potters emerge as specialized craftspeople
“Neolithic Package”: Agriculture + Pottery + Polished Stone Tools = Neolithic
2. Pottery Technology
Manufacturing Process:
A. Clay Preparation:
- Clay collection: From riverbeds, ponds
- Tempering: Adding sand, grit, chaff (prevents cracking)
- Kneading: Removing air bubbles
- Aging: Letting clay rest (improves workability)
B. Shaping Techniques:
- Hand-Made (Early Neolithic):
- Coiling: Clay coils stacked, smoothed
- Molding: Shaping over/in mold
- Pinching: Shaping by hand pressure
- Evidence: Irregular thickness, finger impressions
- Wheel-Made (Later Neolithic/Chalcolithic):
- Slow wheel: Tournette, hand-rotated
- Fast wheel: Kick wheel (later innovation)
- Advantages: Symmetry, faster production, thinner walls
- Evidence: Uniform thickness, concentric ridges
C. Decoration:
Techniques:
- Incision: Scratching designs before firing
- Cord-impressed: Rolling cord over wet clay (Burzahom common)
- Appliqué: Applying clay pieces (buttons, bands)
- Painting: Applying pigments before/after firing
- Stamping: Pressing designs with stamps
- Burnishing: Polishing surface (smooth, lustrous)
Motifs:
- Geometric patterns (lines, triangles, circles)
- Naturalistic (animals, plants) – rare in early Neolithic
- Abstract designs
- Symbolic meanings debated
D. Firing:
Types:
- Open Firing (Early):
- Clay vessels in open bonfire
- Low temperature (600-800°C)
- Uneven firing, black/grey pottery
- Less durable
- Kiln Firing (Later):
- Enclosed structure (clay/brick kiln)
- Higher temperature (900-1100°C)
- Controlled atmosphere
- Red/orange pottery (oxidizing)
- More durable, waterproof
Evidence: Pottery kilns found at Mehrgarh, later sites
3. Regional Pottery Traditions
A. Mehrgarh Pottery:
- Early: Hand-made, simple forms
- Later: Well-fired, painted designs
- Decoration: Geometric patterns (triangles, chevrons)
- Forms: Storage jars, bowls, cups
- Significance: Shows technological evolution over 3,000+ years
B. Burzahom (Kashmir) Pottery:
- Distinctive: Cord-impressed decoration (defining feature)
- Technique: Cord rolled over wet clay before firing
- Forms: Jars with pointed bottoms (easy to embed in ground for stability)
- Color: Grey to black (reducing atmosphere)
- Parallels: Similar pottery in Central Asia (cultural connection)
- Significance: Shows external contacts, distinct regional tradition
C. South Indian (Deccan) Pottery:
- Grey ware: Common (reducing atmosphere firing)
- Burnished: Polished surfaces
- Forms: Bowls, dishes, jars
- Decoration: Minimal (functional focus)
- Associated: Ash mound culture
D. Gangetic Plains Pottery:
- Handmade initially
- Cord-impressed in some sites (Northeast connection?)
- Later: Painted pottery (Ochre-colored pottery)
- Forms: Storage jars, cooking pots
- Quality: Variable, improving over time
Pottery as Cultural Marker:
- Different regions = different pottery styles
- Helps identify cultural zones
- Trade indicated when non-local pottery found
- Technological diffusion vs. population movement debated
D. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS
1. Polished Stone Tools (Defining Feature)
Manufacturing Process:
- Pecking: Rough shaping by striking with hammerstone
- Grinding: Rubbing on abrasive stone (sandstone, granite)
- Polishing: Final finish on fine-grained stone
- Hafting: Attaching to wooden handle
- Time: Many hours per tool (high value)
Why Polish?:
- Sharper edge: Lasts longer
- Penetration: Better for woodworking
- Aesthetic: Beautiful, prestige object
- Durability: Less chipping than flaked tools
Tool Types: (See Agriculture section for details)
Trade in Polished Axes:
- High-quality stone sources (basalt, dolerite) limited
- Tools traded over long distances (100s of km)
- Shows exchange networks
- “Stone axe factories” identified (specialized production sites)
2. Textiles and Weaving
Evidence:
A. Cotton:
- Mehrgarh: Cotton threads, cloth fragments (6000 BCE)
- World’s earliest cotton textile evidence
- Seeds and fibers preserved
- Spindle whorls (for spinning) found
B. Wool:
- From domesticated sheep
- Spinning and weaving inferred
- Important in cold regions (Kashmir)
C. Tools:
- Spindle whorls: Disc-shaped stones/pottery for spinning thread
- Needles: Bone needles for sewing
- Loom weights: Stone weights for weaving looms
Process:
- Fiber preparation: Cleaning, combing cotton/wool
- Spinning: Using spindle to create thread
- Weaving: On simple looms creating fabric
- Sewing: Using bone needles to make garments
Significance:
- Clothing production: Beyond animal skins
- Trade commodity: Textiles exchanged
- Specialization: Weavers as craft specialists
- Foundation: Indian textile tradition (continues to present)
- Cotton cultivation: India’s unique contribution to world
3. Beads and Ornaments
Materials:
- Stone: Carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, turquoise, steatite
- Shell: Marine and freshwater shells
- Bone: Animal bones and teeth
- Clay: Terracotta beads
Manufacturing (Mehrgarh Evidence):
- Drilling: Using stone drills (bow drill technique)
- Perforation: Creating holes for stringing
- Polishing: Grinding to smooth finish
- Shaping: Various forms (cylindrical, spherical, disc)
Mehrgarh Bead Industry:
- Specialized workshops identified
- Thousands of beads found
- Semi-precious stones (carnelian, lapis lazuli)
- Trade significance: Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan (long-distance trade)
- Craft specialization: Professional bead-makers
- Foundation: Harappan bead industry
Uses:
- Personal adornment: Necklaces, bracelets
- Status symbols: Exotic materials = wealth
- Trade items: Exchange commodities
- Ritual: Placed in burials
4. Other Technologies
A. Basketry:
- Evidence: Impressions on pottery, burnt fragments
- Materials: Reeds, grasses, bamboo
- Uses: Storage, carrying, mats
- Technique: Coiling, twining, plaiting
B. Leather Working:
- Tools: Bone awls, stone scrapers
- Process: Tanning hides
- Products: Clothing, bags, straps
- Evidence: Tool types, use-wear
C. Woodworking:
- Tools: Polished axes, adzes
- Products: Houses, handles, bowls
- Evidence: Tool types, rare wood fragments
- Importance: Essential for construction
D. Fire Technology:
- Controlled use (hearths)
- Pottery firing (kilns)
- Forest clearing (slash-and-burn)
- Cooking, warmth, protection
E. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND COMPLEXITY
1. Emergence of Social Stratification
Paleolithic-Mesolithic: Egalitarian (roughly equal status)
Neolithic Changes:
A. Property Ownership:
- Land: Agricultural fields become property
- Surplus: Stored grain = wealth
- Livestock: Cattle ownership = status
- Houses: Permanent structures = investment
- Tools: Valuable polished axes, beads
Consequence: Inequality – some own more than others
B. Archaeological Evidence for Hierarchy:
- Burial Differences (Most Important):
- Rich burials: Multiple grave goods, exotic items
- Poor burials: Minimal or no goods
- Mehrgarh: Some graves with beads, others without
- Burzahom: Differential burial treatment
- Interpretation: Status differences in life reflected in death
- House Size Variations:
- Larger houses suggest wealthier families
- Storage capacity differences
- Location (central vs. peripheral)
- Craft Goods Distribution:
- Some households have more ornaments, fine pottery
- Unequal access to prestige items
- Grave Goods Composition:
- Elite graves: Lapis lazuli, carnelian, copper (rare)
- Common graves: Simple pottery, few items
- Gender differences: Different items for men/women
C. Possible Social Hierarchy:
Top Tier (Emerging Elite):
- Large landowners
- Cattle owners
- Ritual specialists/priests (?)
- Craft specialists (bead-makers, potters)
- Basis of power: Control of resources, specialized knowledge
Middle Tier:
- Average farmers
- Small-scale herders
- Basic craft producers
Lower Tier:
- Landless laborers (?)
- Servants/dependents (?)
- Evidence limited: Hard to identify archaeologically
Note: Neolithic hierarchy was nascent, not rigid. Nothing like Bronze Age kings or city-states yet.
2. Division of Labor
By Task:
A. Farmers:
- Primary producers
- Majority of population
- Own/work land
- Household-based production
B. Pastoralists:
- Herding specialists
- May combine with farming (agro-pastoralism)
- Seasonal movement (transhumance)
C. Craft Specialists (Emerging):
- Potters: Making vessels
- Bead-makers: Mehrgarh workshops
- Stone tool makers: Polished axe production
- Weavers: Textile production
- Part-time initially: Also farmed, gradually specializing
D. Traders (?):
- Exchange goods between communities
- Long-distance trade (lapis lazuli, shells)
- Evidence indirect
By Gender (Inferred, Debated):
Traditional Model (Based on Ethnography):
- Men: Ploughing, hunting, warfare, heavy construction
- Women: Planting, harvesting, food processing, pottery, weaving, child-rearing
- Both: Herding, gathering, some crafts
Critique:
- Projecting modern gender roles backward
- Archaeological evidence ambiguous
- Likely more flexible than rigid
Evidence:
- Burial goods sometimes gender-specific (tools vs. ornaments)
- Heavy tools (axes) vs. processing tools (grinders)
- Skeletal analysis (work-related stress patterns)
3. Kinship and Family Structures
Inferred Patterns:
Extended Families:
- Multi-generational households
- Larger houses accommodate extended family
- Joint labor for agriculture
- Property transmission within family
Village as Kin Group:
- Villages may be single lineage/clan
- Exogamy (marrying outside) creates inter-village links
- Kinship governs social relations
No Direct Evidence But:
- House sizes suggest family units
- Burials sometimes grouped (family plots?)
- Continuity of occupation (generational)
4. Conflict and Warfare
Evidence for Violence:
A. Fortifications (Later Neolithic):
- Some sites have defensive walls (rare)
- Ditches around settlements
- Suggests need for defense
B. Weapons:
- Polished stone axes (dual purpose: tool + weapon)
- Arrowheads (hunting or warfare)
- No specialized weapons yet (unlike Bronze Age)
C. Burnt Layers:
- Some sites show destruction by fire
- Possible warfare evidence
D. Skeletal Trauma (Rare):
- Few Neolithic skeletons show violent injuries
- Less than Mesolithic (Sarai Nahar Rai)
Causes of Conflict:
- Land disputes: Agricultural land valuable
- Resource competition: Water, grazing
- Raiding: Stealing grain, cattle
- Territorial expansion: Population growth
Scale:
- Small-scale (village vs. village)
- Not organized warfare (no armies)
- Less violent than later Bronze Age
F. BURIAL PRACTICES AND RELIGION
1. Burial Customs
Neolithic Burial Characteristics:
A. Mehrgarh Burials:
Location:
- Separate cemetery areas
- Some burials within settlement
Body Treatment:
- Primary burials: Body buried intact
- Flexed position: Most common (legs drawn up)
- Extended burials: Some cases (body laid straight)
- Orientation: Variable (no consistent pattern)
Grave Goods:
- Personal ornaments: Beads (lapis, carnelian, shell)
- Pottery: Vessels (food/water for afterlife?)
- Tools: Stone tools, bone implements
- Baskets: Impressions preserved
- Ochre: Red coloring (symbolic of blood/life)
Significance:
- Belief in afterlife (grave goods necessary for journey)
- Status differences (rich vs. poor burials)
- Careful treatment (respect for dead)
B. Burzahom Burials:
Unique Features:
- Human Burials:
- Flexed position
- Grave goods: Pottery, tools, ornaments
- Some with ochre
- Animal Burials (Extraordinary!):
- Dogs buried with humans (in same grave!)
- Separate dog burials (individual graves for dogs)
- Significance:
- Dogs valued companions
- Emotional bonds between humans and dogs
- Possibly guide in afterlife (like later mythologies)
- Earliest evidence of pet burial in India
- Carved Stelae:
- Stone slabs with hunting scenes
- Placed in graves
- Shows artistic and symbolic expression
C. South Indian Burials:
- Less well-documented than Northwest
- Later megalithic burials (overlap with Neolithic)
- Ash mound association unclear
D. Gangetic Burials:
- Evidence limited
- Flexed burials at Chirand
- Grave goods simpler than Mehrgarh
Comparative Analysis:
| Site | Position | Grave Goods | Special Features |
| Mehrgarh | Flexed, Extended | Rich (beads, pottery) | Status differentiation |
| Burzahom | Flexed | Moderate (pottery, tools) | Dog burials, stelae |
| Chirand | Flexed | Simple | Limited evidence |
| Deccan | Variable | Variable | Later megalithic tradition |
2. Religious Beliefs (Inferred)
No Written Records, so religion inferred from:
A. Burial Practices:
- Afterlife belief: Grave goods imply continued existence
- Respect for dead: Careful burial, not disposal
- Ritual treatment: Ochre, positioning, grave structure
B. Fertility Cults:
Evidence:
- Female figurines: Clay/terracotta figures
- Exaggerated features: Breasts, hips, belly (fertility symbols)
- Mother Goddess worship: Possible (debated)
- Agricultural society: Fertility crucial (crops, animals, humans)
Examples:
- Mehrgarh: Female figurines found
- Various sites: Similar figurines widespread
Interpretation:
- Fertility worship: Ensuring abundant harvests, children
- Mother Earth concept: Agriculture = connection with earth
- Continuity: Later Hindu mother goddess cults (Shakti, Durga)
Critique:
- Projecting later religion backward
- Figurines may be toys, portraits, not religious
- Functions may be multiple
C. Animal Cults:
Cattle Veneration:
- Cattle important economically
- Possible religious significance
- Foundation for later Hindu cattle sacredness?
Dog Burials (Burzahom):
- Suggests special status
- Possible totemic belief (dog as guardian spirit)
D. Ancestor Worship:
- Burial care suggests continued importance of dead
- Ancestors may be venerated
- Protection and blessing from forebears
E. Nature Worship (Probable):
- Agricultural dependence on nature (rain, sun, soil)
- Animistic beliefs likely (spirits in nature)
- Fertility of earth worshipped
F. Shamanism (Possible):
- Ritual specialists (proto-priests)
- Mediation with supernatural
- Healing, divination
- Rock art may depict shamanic rituals
Religious Continuity to Hinduism:
- Mother goddess: Shakti tradition
- Cattle veneration: Sacred cow
- Nature worship: Elements in Vedic/Hindu religion
- Fertility rites: Agricultural festivals
- Ancestor reverence: Shraddha rituals
Caution: Direct lines speculative but patterns suggest continuities
In Part 1, we explored the Neolithic Revolution (8,000-3,000 BCE)—the transformative shift from hunting-gathering to agriculture and settled village life.
In Third Part we learn MAJOR NEOLITHIC SITES: DETAILED ANALYSIS
CONCLUSION:
The Neolithic Age (8,000-3,000 BCE) fundamentally transformed human existence in India through the revolutionary shift to agriculture and settled village life. This period established economic, social, and cultural patterns that persist today.
Key achievements included diverse regional agricultural systems (wheat-barley in Northwest, rice in Gangetic plains, millets in South India), technological innovations (polished stone tools, pottery, world’s first cotton textiles at Mehrgarh), and the emergence of craft specialization. Permanent villages replaced nomadic camps, creating the first property-owning societies with nascent social hierarchies evident in differential burial practices.
Religious patterns established during this period—fertility cults, cattle veneration, ancestor worship—echo through millennia into modern Hinduism. India’s Neolithic showcased remarkable regional diversity (from Kashmir’s pit dwellings to South India’s ash mounds) within technological unity.
The Neolithic surplus enabled population growth, craft specialization, trade networks, and social complexity—directly paving the way for the Chalcolithic Age and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. However, this “progress” came with costs: increased labor, declining health, environmental degradation, and social inequality.
For UPSC aspirants, the Neolithic Age provides essential understanding of civilization’s origins, material culture evolution, and the continuity linking prehistoric to historic India. The Neolithic Revolution—revolutionary in consequences, evolutionary in process—irreversibly shaped humanity, with patterns from 10,000 years ago continuing to influence modern India.
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