The Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE)

by

The Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE)

INTRODUCTION: Conceptual Framework (UPSC Mains Enhanced Study Notes)

The Mauryan Empire represents a watershed moment in Indian history – the first time the Indian subcontinent was united under a single political authority (except the extreme south). It marks the transition from the age of small kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) to a centralized imperial state, establishing administrative, military, and economic systems that influenced Indian polity for centuries.

Timeline: 321-185 BCE (approximately 136 years)

Geographical Extent: From Afghanistan (northwest) to Bengal (east), Kashmir (north) to Karnataka border (south) – largest empire in ancient India until the Mughals

UPSC Significance: The Mauryan Empire is crucial for understanding:

  1. First pan-Indian empire – political unification
  2. Statecraft and administration – Arthashastra as political science text
  3. Ashoka’s Dhamma – ethical governance, religious tolerance
  4. Buddhist patronage – spread of Buddhism
  5. Centralized bureaucracy – model for later empires
  6. Art and architecture – Mauryan pillars, stupas
  7. Epigraphy – Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts
  8. Foreign relations – Interactions with Hellenistic world
  9. Economic organization – State control, trade networks
  10. Decline patterns – Over-centralization risks

I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

A. Historical Context (4th Century BCE)

Political Situation:

  • Nanda Dynasty ruled Magadha (345-321 BCE)
    • Mahapadma Nanda: Powerful but unpopular
    • Dhana Nanda: Last Nanda ruler (321 BCE)
    • Strong military (200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 chariots, 3,000 elephants – exaggerated?)
    • Oppressive taxation
    • Low-caste origin (contemporary prejudice)
    • Brahmins hostile

External Threat:

  • Alexander’s Invasion (327-325 BCE)
    • Conquered northwest India (Taxila, Punjab)
    • Defeated Porus (Battle of Hydaspes, 326 BCE)
    • Army mutinied at Beas River (refused to advance further)
    • Returned via Sindh (325 BCE)
    • Left Greek satraps (governors) in northwest
    • Impact:
      • Political vacuum in northwest
      • Greek accounts (Arrian, Plutarch) provide dates, details
      • Showed Indian kingdoms vulnerable
      • Inspired unification

Opportunity:

  • Nanda unpopularity + Alexander’s withdrawal = chance for ambitious leader

B. CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (321-297 BCE) – The Founder

Early Life (Obscure, Legendary):

Birth:

  • Date: ~340 BCE (approximate)
  • Origin: Debated
    • Buddhist/Jain sources: Son of Mura (peacock-keeper woman) + Nanda king → “Maurya” (from Mura)
    • Brahmanical sources: Kshatriya, descended from Shakyas
    • Modern view: Likely humble origins, obscure family

Meeting with Chanakya:

  • Legend: Chanakya (Brahmin scholar) insulted by Dhana Nanda at court
  • Vowed to destroy Nandas
  • Discovered young Chandragupta (intelligence, leadership potential)
  • Became mentor, strategist

Training:

  • Taxila (premier university) – studied statecraft, military strategy
  • Preparation: Gathered supporters, built army
  • First attempt to overthrow Nandas failed (captured provinces before attacking capital)
  • Learned lesson: “Attack from periphery first, then center” (like eating hot pancake from edges!)

Overthrow of Nandas (321 BCE):

Strategy (Chanakya’s Plan):

  1. Subversion: Propaganda against Nandas (oppressive, low-caste)
  2. Alliance-building: United various groups (merchants, Brahmins, Kshatriyas) against Nandas
  3. Military preparation: Trained army, secured northwest (used Greek withdrawal vacuum)
  4. Gradual conquest: Captured peripheral regions first
  5. Final assault: Attacked Pataliputra (Magadha capital)

Result:

  • Dhana Nanda defeated (321 BCE) – possibly killed or exiled
  • Chandragupta crowned at Pataliputra
  • Mauryan Empire founded
  • Age: ~25 years

Consolidation and Expansion:

Phase 1: Northwest Conquest (321-305 BCE):

Greek Satraps Defeated:

  • Alexander’s successors controlled northwest (Peithon, Philip, Eudamus)
  • Chandragupta expelled them (by 317 BCE)
  • Gained: Punjab, Gandhara, Sindh, parts of Afghanistan

Significance:

  • Prevented Greek colonization
  • Secured northwest frontier
  • Access to trade routes (Silk Road precursor)

Phase 2: War with Seleucus Nicator (305 BCE):

Context:

  • Seleucus I Nicator: Alexander’s general, inherited eastern territories (Syria, Persia, Bactria)
  • Sought to reconquer India (Alexander’s former territories)
  • 305 BCE: Invaded northwest India

The War:

  • Details unknown (no Indian records of battle)
  • Greek sources mention “war” but vague
  • Likely: Chandragupta’s superior forces, knowledge of terrain, supply lines

Treaty of 305 BCE (Peace Settlement):

Terms:

  1. Territorial Exchange:
    • Seleucus ceded to Chandragupta:
      • Aria (Herat, Afghanistan)
      • Arachosia (Kandahar, Afghanistan)
      • Gedrosia (Baluchistan)
      • Paropamisadae (Hindu Kush region)
    • Essentially: Afghanistan, Baluchistan
  2. Matrimonial Alliance:
    • Seleucus gave daughter in marriage to Chandragupta (or relative)
    • Diplomatic bond
  3. Chandragupta gave 500 war elephants to Seleucus:
    • Critical: Seleucus used them at Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE) against Antigonus
    • Elephants decisive in victory
    • Shows Mauryan military strength (could spare 500 elephants!)
  4. Exchange of Ambassadors:
    • Megasthenes sent as Greek ambassador to Mauryan court
    • Stayed at Pataliputra several years
    • Wrote “Indica” (lost original, fragments preserved)
    • Describes Mauryan administration, society, Pataliputra grandeur

Significance:

  • First treaty between Indian and Western power recorded
  • Mauryan Empire at largest extent under Chandragupta:
    • North: Kashmir, Hindu Kush
    • West: Afghanistan, Baluchistan
    • East: Bengal
    • South: North Karnataka (probably)
  • Diplomatic recognition: Greek world acknowledged Mauryan power
  • Cultural exchange: Greek artisans may have come (influenced Mauryan art)

Internal Consolidation:

Administrative Organization:

  • Established centralized bureaucracy (elaborated in Arthashastra)
  • Provincial system: Empire divided into provinces (Janapadas)
  • Espionage network: Extensive intelligence system
  • Standing army: Large, permanent military force
  • State control of economy: Mines, forests, armament factories

Economic Prosperity:

  • Agricultural development
  • Trade networks (internal and external – with Greeks)
  • State monopolies (salt, mining, liquor, armaments)
  • Taxation system organized

Capital – Pataliputra:

  • Location: Confluence of Ganga and Son rivers (modern Patna)
  • Fortified city (9 miles long, 1.5 miles wide – Megasthenes)
  • Massive wooden palisade with 64 gates, 570 towers
  • Moat (filled from Son river)
  • Royal palace (compared to Persian Persepolis by Megasthenes)

Later Life and Death:

Jain Conversion (Tradition):

  • Influenced by Jain monk Bhadrabahu
  • Famine in Magadha (~297 BCE)
  • Abdicated throne to son Bindusara
  • Migrated south to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu
  • Became Jain ascetic
  • Died by Sallekhana (ritual fasting unto death – Jain practice) – ~297 BCE
  • Tradition honored at Shravanabelagola (inscription, later temple)

Historical Debate:

  • Jain sources unanimous about conversion, death
  • No Buddhist/Brahmanical source confirms
  • Likely: Some Jain influence, though exact details uncertain

Assessment:

  • Military genius: Conquered from Pataliputra to Hindu Kush
  • Administrative ability: Organized vast empire efficiently
  • Strategic mind: Alliance with Chanakya, treaty with Seleucus
  • Founder: Laid foundation for Mauryan greatness
  • Reigned: 24 years (321-297 BCE)

C. CHANAKYA (Kautilya/Vishnugupta) – The Kingmaker

Multiple Names:

  • Chanakya: Common name (possibly from Chanaka village)
  • Kautilya: Scholarly name (from Kutila – cunning; or Kutila gotra)
  • Vishnugupta: Another name (possibly personal name)

Life:

  • Brahmin scholar from Taxila
  • Teacher at Taxila University (political science, economics, military strategy)
  • Physically unattractive (tradition: crooked teeth, dark complexion) but brilliant mind
  • Humiliated by Nanda king → Vowed revenge

Role in Mauryan Empire:

  • Mentor to Chandragupta (discovered as boy, trained)
  • Chief Minister (Prime Minister/Mahamantri)
  • Strategist: Planned overthrow of Nandas
  • Architect: Designed administrative system
  • Statesman: Negotiated with Seleucus (possibly)

Political Philosophy:

  • Realpolitik: Pragmatic, not idealistic
  • “Ends justify means”: Use any method (deceit, assassination, spying) to protect state
  • State supremacy: King’s duty to preserve state at all costs
  • Weak ethics: Morality subordinate to state interest (criticized by later thinkers)

THE ARTHASHASTRA – India’s Ancient Political Science Text:

Authorship: Attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya)

  • Debate: Did Chanakya write it?
    • Traditional view: Yes, during/after Chandragupta’s reign
    • Critical view: Compilation over time, final form later (Gupta period?)
    • Consensus: Core from Mauryan period, later additions/edits possible

Structure:

  • 15 Books (Adhikaranas): 150 chapters, 180 sections, 6,000 shlokas
  • Language: Sanskrit (prose and verse)

Content Overview:

Book 1: Concerning Discipline – Education of king, ministers Book 2: Activities of Superintendents – Economic administration Book 3: Concerning Law – Judicial system Book 4: Removal of Thorns – Criminal law, punishment Book 5: Conduct of Courtiers – Palace administration Book 6: The Source of Sovereign States – Theory of state, elements Book 7: The Six Measures of Foreign Policy – Mandala theory, diplomacy Book 8-9: Concerning Vices and Calamities – Dangers to state Book 10: Concerning War – Military strategy, tactics Book 11: Conduct towards Confederacies – Alliances Book 12: Concerning a Powerful Enemy – Dealing with stronger foe Book 13: Strategic Means to Capture a Fort – Siege warfare Book 14: Secret Means – Espionage, covert operations Book 15: Methodology of Discipline – Summary, methodology

Key Concepts:

1. Saptanga Theory (Seven Limbs of State):

State = Organic entity with 7 interdependent parts:

Anga (Limb)MeaningImportance
SwamiSovereign (King)Head – decides policy
AmatyaMinistersEyes – advise, execute
JanapadaTerritory & PeopleBody – support state
DurgaFortRefuge – protection
KoshaTreasuryLifeblood – finances
DandaArmyArms – enforce
MitraAllyExternal support

Interdependence: Weakness in one limb weakens entire state (like human body)

2. Mandala Theory (Circle of States) – Foreign Policy:

Concentric circles around one’s kingdom:

  1. Vijigishu (Would-be conqueror): Your own kingdom (center)
  2. Ari (Enemy): Immediate neighbor (always hostile – competing resources)
  3. Mitra (Friend): Neighbor’s neighbor (natural ally – enemy’s enemy)
  4. Ari-Mitra (Enemy’s ally): Friend of enemy
  5. Mitra-Mitra (Ally’s ally): Friend of friend
  6. Ari-Mitra-Mitra (Ally of enemy’s ally) …and so on (12 kings in full mandala)

Policy: Natural enemies are neighbors; natural allies are neighbors’ neighbors

3. Shadgunya (Six-Fold Policy):

Six diplomatic measures for king to adopt based on relative strength:

PolicySanskritWhen Used
PeaceSandhiWith equal/stronger neighbor
WarVigrahaAgainst weaker enemy
NeutralityAsanaWhen neither peace nor war beneficial
MarchingYanaAgainst distant enemy or ally’s aid
AllianceSamshrayaWhen weak, ally with stronger
Dual PolicyDvaidhibhavaPeace with one, war with another

Pragmatism: Switch policies based on changing power dynamics (no permanent friends/enemies, only interests)

4. Matsya Nyaya (Law of Fishes):

“Big fish eat small fish” – State of nature

  • Without strong king, anarchy prevails
  • Justifies authoritarian ruler (lesser evil than chaos)
  • King’s primary duty: Protect weak from strong

5. Rajdharma (King’s Duty):

King must:

  • Protect subjects (internal security)
  • Defend territory (external security)
  • Dispense justice (rule of law)
  • Promote prosperity (economic welfare)
  • Personal discipline: Rise before dawn, self-control, no luxurious indulgence

King’s Routine (Arthashastra prescribes daily schedule!):

  • Divided day into 16 parts (1.5 hours each)
  • Fixed time for: Governance, judicial work, military matters, recreation, sleep
  • Constant vigilance: King never entirely free (state demands)

6. Espionage System (Guptacharas):

Extensive spy network:

  • Types of spies:
    • Kapatika (Fraudulent disciples) – pose as religious mendicants
    • Uddasthita (Recluses) – monks, ascetics
    • Grihapatika (Householders) – merchants, farmers
    • Vaidehika (Wandering nuns) – women spies
    • Tikshna (Fiery spies) – assassins
    • Rasada (Poisoners) – use poison
  • Functions:
    • Intelligence gathering (internal and external)
    • Counter-espionage
    • Guarding king
    • Elimination of threats (assassination approved!)
    • Testing officials’ loyalty

Paranoia: King should trust NO ONE completely (even wife, son could be traitors)

7. Economic Management:

State control:

  • State monopolies: Mines, forests, salt, armaments, liquor
  • Superintendents (Adhyakshas) for each department:
    • Agriculture, Trade, Weights & Measures, Prostitutes, Gambling, Slaughterhouses, etc.
  • Revenue sources: Land tax, customs, fines, monopolies, confiscations
  • Taxation:
    • Land revenue: 1/6 of produce (ideal; could be higher in emergency)
    • Various tolls, customs

Welfare:

  • State responsible for irrigation, roads, famine relief
  • Employment for all (no beggars ideally)

8. Punishment (Danda):

Harsh punishments:

  • Torture authorized (for confession in serious crimes)
  • Mutilation: Cutting fingers, nose, ears (for theft, adultery)
  • Death penalty: For treason, murder, robbery, sexual crimes
  • Graded fines: Based on crime severity, perpetrator’s status

Philosophy: Fear of punishment (Danda Niti) maintains order

  • “In absence of Danda, strong devour weak”
  • But: King must be fair, not arbitrary (follows Dharmashastra)

9. Warfare:

Total War Concept:

  • All means acceptable: Deceit, assassination, bribing enemy troops, poisoning water, spreading disease
  • Kautilya Diplomacy: Extremely unethical by modern standards!
  • Silent war (Prakasha Yuddha vs. Gudha Yuddha): Prefer covert operations over open battle (conserves resources)

Military organization detailed:

  • Infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants (Chaturangabala – four-limbed army)
  • Pay scales, training, weapons, logistics

Arthashastra’s Significance:

For UPSC:

  • Ancient political science: Comparable to Machiavelli’s “The Prince” (but 1800 years earlier!)
  • Realist school: Realpolitik, not idealistic
  • Administrative details: Actual system (not theoretical)
  • Economic thought: State-controlled economy model
  • Comparison:
    • Plato’s Republic: Idealistic, philosophical
    • Aristotle’s Politics: Analytical, comparative
    • Arthashastra: Practical, prescriptive, Machiavellian

Criticisms:

  • Amoral: Ends justify means (criticized by Buddhist/Jain ethics)
  • Authoritarian: Little individual freedom
  • Paranoid: Excessive espionage, mistrust
  • Harsh: Brutal punishments

Defenses:

  • Reflects era: Brutal, competitive Mahajanapada period
  • State survival: Weak states annexed; harsh measures necessary
  • Economic development: State monopolies ensured revenue for public works
  • Order: Prevented anarchy (Matsya Nyaya)

Legacy:

  • Influenced later empires: Guptas, Delhi Sultanate, Mughals
  • Still studied: Political science, strategic studies
  • Modern relevance: Geopolitics, statecraft, diplomacy

D. BINDUSARA (297-272 BCE) – The Consolidator

Accession: 297 BCE (after Chandragupta’s abdication/death)

Name:

  • Bindusara: Sanskrit (Bindu = drop; Sara = essence)
  • Greek sources: Amitraghata (“Slayer of Foes”)
  • Jain sources: Simhasena

Reign: 25 years (297-272 BCE)

Expansion:

  • Southern conquests: Extended empire southward
    • Conquered “land between two seas” (Arabian Sea to Bay of Bengal)
    • Reached up to Mysore (Karnataka)
    • Only extreme south (Kerala, Tamil Nadu) remained independent (Chola, Chera, Pandya)
  • Consolidation: Strengthened administration in newly conquered territories

Foreign Relations:

With Seleucid Empire:

  • Friendly relations continued (from Chandragupta’s treaty)
  • Antiochus I (Seleucus’s son) sent Deimachus as ambassador
    • Stayed at Pataliputra
    • Wrote account (now lost)

With Ptolemaic Egypt:

  • Ptolemy II Philadelphus sent Dionysius as ambassador
  • Cultural exchange

Requests to Antiochus (Amusing anecdote!):

  • Bindusara asked Antiochus to send:
    1. Sweet wine (granted)
    2. Dried figs (granted)
    3. A sophist (Greek philosopher/teacher)
  • Antiochus replied: “We’ll send wine and figs, but Greek law forbids selling sophists!” (witty refusal)
  • Shows: Mauryan interest in Greek culture, humor in diplomacy

Administration:

  • Continued Chanakya’s system (Arthashastra)
  • Chanakya remained chief minister (early part of reign)
  • Efficient governance: No major internal revolts
  • Provinces governed by Kumaras (princes):
    • Ashoka: Viceroy of Ujjain (Malwa)
    • Sushima: Viceroy of Taxila (Northwest)

Religious Affiliation:

  • Ajivika sect (heterodox, fatalistic)
  • Tolerant: Allowed Buddhism, Jainism, Brahmanism
  • Story: Ordered killing of Ajivikas who insulted Mahavira and Buddha (Jain source – reliability questionable)

Taxila Revolt:

  • Taxila rebelled twice during Bindusara’s reign
  • First revolt: Ashoka sent to suppress (did so peacefully, popular with locals)
  • Second revolt: Sushima sent (brutal suppression)
  • Significance: Shows governance challenges in distant provinces

Death: 272 BCE

Succession Crisis:

  • Sushima (eldest son, crown prince) vs. Ashoka
  • Sources suggest power struggle
  • Ashoka won (possibly eliminated rivals – Buddhist sources sanitize this)
  • 4-year gap (272-268 BCE) between Bindusara’s death and Ashoka’s coronation?
    • Or Ashoka became king 272 BCE but formal coronation later?
    • Chronology debated

Assessment:

  • Competent ruler: Maintained, expanded empire
  • Less famous: Overshadowed by father (Chandragupta) and son (Ashoka)
  • Consolidator: Strengthened empire, prepared for Ashoka’s reign
  • Peaceful foreign relations: Continued Greek friendship

UPSC Note: Bindusara often neglected but important – shows dynastic continuity, administrative stability, expansion (southward)

II. ASHOKA THE GREAT (268-232 BCE)

Most Famous Mauryan Emperor – One of greatest rulers in world history

Names:

  • Ashoka: “Without sorrow” (ironic, given Kalinga!)
  • Priyadarshi: “Beloved of Gods” (title in edicts)
  • Devanampiya: “Dear to Gods” (Pali inscriptions)

Chronology:

  • Birth: ~304 BCE
  • Viceroy of Ujjain (under Bindusara): Youth
  • King: 268 BCE (after succession struggle)
  • Coronation: 268 BCE (or 264 BCE if 4-year gap theory)
  • Kalinga War: 261 BCE (8th/9th year of reign)
  • Conversion to Buddhism: ~260 BCE (after Kalinga)
  • Death: 232 BCE (36-year reign)

A. Early Life and Accession

Childhood:

  • One of many sons of Bindusara
  • Mother: Subhadrangi (or Dharma) – not chief queen (lower status)
  • Buddhist sources: Ugly as child, not favored by father
  • Reality: Capable administrator (sent to Ujjain, Taxila)

As Prince:

  • Governor of Ujjain (Western India):
    • Married Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), daughter of merchant
    • Two children: Mahinda (son), Sanghamitta (daughter) – later Buddhist missionaries
  • Suppressed Taxila revolt (peaceful settlement)
  • Reputation: Capable, popular with people

Succession Struggle (272-268 BCE):

  • Bindusara died 272 BCE
  • Sushima (eldest, crown prince) expected to succeed
  • Ashoka contested (with support of ministers, army)
  • Civil war (tradition):
    • Ashoka killed 99 brothers (Buddhist sources exaggerate!)
    • Likely: Eliminated few rivals (Sushima + 2-3 others)
    • Took throne by force
  • “Chandashoka” (Ashoka the Fierce) period: Brutal, tyrant (pre-Kal
  • “Chandashoka” (Ashoka the Fierce) period: Brutal, tyrant (pre-Kalinga)
    • Buddhist sources: Torture chamber, killed ministers for advice, harsh ruler
    • Exaggeration: To contrast with post-Kalinga transformation

Coronation: 268 BCE (traditional date; some say 264 BCE)

B. THE KALINGA WAR (261 BCE) – Turning Point

Context:

Kalinga:

  • Location: Modern Odisha (coastal region)
  • Independent kingdom: Not part of Mauryan Empire
  • Strategic importance:
    • Rich (trade with Southeast Asia)
    • Seaports (maritime trade)
    • Gateway to South India
  • Military power: Strong army, navy
  • Previous attempts: Chandragupta, Bindusara tried but failed to conquer

Why Ashoka Invaded?:

  1. Complete unification: Only major independent kingdom in North/East
  2. Economic: Control trade routes
  3. Strategic: Prevent alliance with South Indian kingdoms
  4. Imperial ambition: “Finish what father/grandfather couldn’t”

The War (261 BCE = 8th/9th year of Ashoka’s reign):

Details scarce: No contemporary account of battle

  • Only source: Ashoka’s own Rock Edict XIII (years later)
  • Military details unknown (generals, tactics, duration)

Ashoka’s Rock Edict XIII (Direct Quote):

“The Beloved of Gods, King Priyadarshi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand persons were deported, one hundred thousand were killed, and many times that number died.”

Scale of Devastation:

  • 150,000 deported (enslaved/relocated)
  • 100,000 killed (in battle)
  • Many times more died (famine, disease after war)
  • Total casualties: 250,000-300,000+ (contemporary estimates)
  • Massive for ancient warfare (compare: Alexander’s battles ~10,000-50,000 deaths)

Conquest:

  • Kalinga annexed: Became Mauryan province
  • Tosali made provincial capital (modern Dhauli, near Bhubaneswar)
  • Complete victory: Kalinga ceased to exist as independent state

ASHOKA’S REMORSE – The Transformation:

Rock Edict XIII Continues:

“Just after the Kalingas had been conquered, the Beloved of Gods began to follow Dharma, to love Dharma, to give instruction in Dharma. When an independent country is conquered, people are killed, they die, or are deported, and that the Beloved of Gods finds very painful and grievous.”

“If anyone does him wrong, it will be forgiven as far as it can be forgiven. The Beloved of Gods even reasons with the forest tribes in his empire and seeks to reform them. But the Beloved of Gods is not only compassionate, he is also powerful, and he tells them to repent, lest they be killed.”

“For all beings the Beloved of Gods desires security, self-control, calm of mind and gentleness.”

What Changed Ashoka?:

  1. Personal Witness: Saw battlefield carnage (dead bodies, wounded, orphans, widows)
  2. Moral Awakening: Realized “victory by violence” is hollow
  3. Buddhist Influence: Met Buddhist monks (possibly Moggaliputta Tissa)
    • Buddhism emphasizes Ahimsa (non-violence)
    • Compassion for all beings
    • Karma – violence creates bad karma
  4. Guilt: Haunted by suffering he caused
  5. Existential Crisis: “What is conquest worth if it brings such misery?”

Conversion to Buddhism (~260 BCE):

Not Formal Conversion Initially:

  • Upasaka (lay follower) for 2.5 years
  • Serious practitioner after (gave up hunting, meat)
  • Never became monk (remained king – Dhamma≠Monasticism)

BUT:

  • Dhamma (Ashoka’s ethical policy) ≠ Pure Buddhism
  • Eclectic: Buddhist principles + Brahmanism + Jainism + local customs
  • Non-sectarian: Promoted tolerance, not Buddhist supremacy

Vow After Kalinga:

“The Beloved of Gods now thinks that even a hundredth or a thousandth part of all those people who were killed, who died, or who were deported from Kalinga is now too much to bear.”

“The Beloved of Gods will forgive as far as he can, and he even conciliates the forest tribes in his empire, but he warns them that there is power even in the remorse of the Beloved of Gods, and he tells them to reform, lest they be killed.”

KEY POLICY CHANGE:

  • “Dhamma-vijaya” (Conquest by Dhamma/Righteousness) replaces “Dig-vijaya” (Conquest by Sword)
  • NO MORE WARS (kept vow rest of his life – 29 more years!)
  • First ruler to renounce warfare on moral grounds

UPSC Significance:

  • Unique in history: Ancient rulers glorified conquest; Ashoka repented!
  • Moral governance: Victory by ethical example, not violence
  • Modern relevance: Non-violence (Gandhi’s inspiration), soft power, ethical foreign policy

C. ASHOKA’S DHAMMA (Dharma)

What is Dhamma?

Not Buddhism (though influenced by it):

  • Sanskrit: Dharma
  • Pali: Dhamma
  • Ashoka’s Definition (from edicts): Ethical conduct, social welfare, religious tolerance

Core Principles:

1. Ahimsa (Non-Violence):

  • To all beings (humans, animals)
  • Banned animal sacrifice (in royal kitchen, rituals)
  • Reduced meat consumption: Ashoka became vegetarian (mostly)
    • “Only 2 peacocks and 1 deer killed daily in royal kitchen (down from hundreds)” – later “even these three not killed”
  • Hospitals: For humans AND animals!
  • Rest houses for travelers, animals
  • Wells, trees: For shade, water

2. Tolerance (Savasammanam):

  • Respect all religions: Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas
  • Edict XII:

“One should honor another man’s religion. By doing so one increases one’s own religion and also does service to the religion of others. By doing otherwise one harms one’s own religion and does disservice to other religions.”

  • No religious persecution: Unprecedented in ancient world (compare: Roman persecution of Christians)

3. Compassion (Daya):

  • Concern for suffering of all beings
  • Welfare measures (hospitals, wells, trees)
  • Humane treatment of servants, slaves
  • Care for elderly, poor

4. Social Welfare:

  • Medical aid: Hospitals (humans), veterinary hospitals (animals)
  • Infrastructure: Roads, wells, rest houses (Dharmashalas)
  • Tree plantation: Shade, fruit trees along roads
  • Education: Dhamma Mahamatras traveled, teaching

5. Family Values:

  • Respect parents, elders
  • Be generous to friends, relatives, Brahmins, ascetics
  • Kind to servants, employees
  • Truthfulness, gentleness

6. Morality:

  • Abstain from killing
  • Truthfulness
  • Self-control
  • Avoid anger, cruelty, pride, envy

7. Religious Duties:

  • Pilgrimages: Ashoka visited Buddhist sites (Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath)
  • Donations: To all sects (not just Buddhist)
  • Cave gifts: Barabar caves to Ajivikas

Dhamma ≠ Religion Narrow Sense:

  • Ethical code: Applicable to all religions
  • Secular elements: Social welfare, tolerance, compassion
  • Practical morality: Not theology or philosophy
  • Common denominator: Shared values across religions

Methods of Propagation:

1. Edicts: Inscriptions (rock, pillar, cave) 2. Dhamma Mahamatras: Special officers to spread Dhamma 3. Personal Example: Ashoka followed Dhamma (vegetarianism, non-violence, pilgrimage) 4. Royal Tours (Dhamma-yatras): Visited provinces, met people, taught Dhamma 5. Missions: Sent to foreign countries (Sri Lanka, Greece, Egypt, Syria)

Criticisms:

1. Vague: What exactly is Dhamma? Edicts repetitive, not precise definition 2. Paternalistic: King telling people how to behave (moral policing?) 3. Impractical: Can empire be run on non-violence alone? (Arthashastra vs. Dhamma) 4. Propaganda: Covering guilt, justifying rule?

Defenses:

1. Revolutionary: First attempt at ethical statecraft in ancient world 2. Practical Impact: Hospitals, roads, wells built (tangible benefits) 3. Tolerance: Allowed all religions (rare in ancient times) 4. Sincere: Kept vow of non-violence 29 years; renounced further conquest despite military power

UPSC Perspective:

  • Ethical Governance Model: Relevant for modern welfare state
  • Soft Power: Dhamma spread Indian influence without military force
  • Religious Harmony: Model for pluralistic society
  • Inspiration: Gandhi (Ahimsa), Nehru (Secularism), Ambedkar (Social justice)

D. ASHOKA’S EDICTS – Primary Historical Source

Importance:

  • First deciphered Indian inscriptions (James Prinsep, 1837)
  • Dated: Ashoka’s regnal years mentioned
  • Widespread: From Afghanistan to Karnataka, Gujarat to Odisha
  • Languages: Prakrit (Brahmi script – most), Greek, Aramaic (northwest)
  • Content: Dhamma policy, events, administration

Types of Edicts:

1. ROCK EDICTS (Major):

14 Rock Edicts (found at multiple sites):

Locations: Girnar (Gujarat), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan), Mansehra (Pakistan), Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Dhauli (Odisha), Jaugada (Odisha), Erragudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Content Summary:

EdictContent
IProhibition of animal sacrifice; reduction of animals killed in royal kitchen
IIMedical aid for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; rest houses, wells
IIIGifts to Brahmins, ascetics; respect for elders, teachers; gentleness to all
IVDecline of Dhamma in past; now revival through Dhamma Mahamatras
VAppointment of Dhamma Mahamatras (5th year of reign); their duties
VIBusiness can be reported to king anytime (accessibility of ruler)
VIITolerance, self-control; Dhamma Mahamatras everywhere
VIIIDhamma-yatras (moral tours) instead of pleasure tours
IXUseless ceremonies criticized; Dhamma ceremonies important
XGlory is in Dhamma, not conquest
XIExplanation of Dhamma: compassion, charity, truthfulness, purity
XIIRespect all religions; criticism of own, praise of others’ religion discouraged
XIIIKalinga War description; remorse; Dhamma-vijaya declared
XIVPurpose of edicts: instruction in Dhamma; inspire future generations

Special Rock Edicts:

  • Dhauli (Odisha): Separate edicts (conquered Kalinga, gentler tone)
  • Jaugada (Odisha): Similar to Dhauli
  • Both have OMISSION of Rock Edict XIII (Kalinga War description) – sensitivity to conquered people!

2. PILLAR EDICTS (Major):

7 Pillar Edicts (inscribed on stone pillars):

Locations: Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut (Feroz Shah transplanted these), Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh (Bihar), Rampurva (Bihar), Allahabad

Content:

EdictContent
IPrinciples of Dhamma; welfare of all beings
IIDhamma defined: few sins, many good deeds, compassion, charity, truth, purity
IIIAdmission of past faults; vow to follow Dhamma
IVDuties of Rajukas (district officers): impartiality in justice, welfare
VList of animals not to be killed (certain species protected – conservation!)
VIPrompt dispatch of business; welfare policies
VIITolerance; welfare; all religions to live everywhere

3. MINOR ROCK EDICTS:

Scattered: Maski, Brahmagiri, Siddapur, Jatinga-Rameshwara (Karnataka), Yerragudi, Rajula-Mandagiri, etc.

Content:

  • Ashoka’s name appears! (Maski: “King Priyadarshi, called Ashoka”)
  • Conversion to Buddhism
  • Progress in Dhamma
  • Tours to inspire people

4. MINOR PILLAR EDICTS:

Locations: Sanchi, Sarnath, Kausambi, Nigali Sagar (Nepal), Lumbini (Nepal)

Content:

  • Instructions to Sangha (Buddhist monastic community)
  • Schism warning (maintain unity)
  • Lumbini Pillar: Marks Buddha’s birthplace; tax exemption for village (1/8 instead of 1/6)

5. CAVE INSCRIPTIONS:

Barabar Hills (Bihar) – Donated to Ajivikas (not Buddhists!)

Inscriptions record donation of caves as shelters for ascetics during rainy season

Shows: Non-sectarian charity (Ashoka Buddhist but helped Ajivikas)

SCRIPT AND LANGUAGE:

Scripts:

  1. Brahmi (Most edicts): Read left-to-right; ancestor of all modern Indian scripts
  2. Kharosthi (Northwest edicts): Read right-to-left; derived from Aramaic
  3. Greek (Kandahar, Afghanistan): For Greek-speaking populations
  4. Aramaic (Kandahar, Laghman – Afghanistan): For Iranian-speaking populations

Languages:

  1. Prakrit (various dialects): Common people’s languages (not Sanskrit!)
  2. Greek: Hellenistic northwest
  3. Aramaic: Persian-influenced regions

Significance:

  • Multi-lingual, multi-script: Accommodated local populations (not imposed one language)
  • Decipherment (1837 by James Prinsep): Unlocked ancient Indian history
    • Before this: Mauryan dates uncertain, Ashoka legendary figure
    • After: Concrete chronology, actual policies known

CONTENT THEMES IN EDICTS:

1. Dhamma Propagation (Main theme):

  • What is Dhamma
  • How to practice
  • Ashoka’s own efforts

2. Social Welfare:

  • Hospitals, wells, trees
  • Rest houses
  • Medical herbs

3. Administration:

  • Officials’ duties (Rajukas, Dhamma Mahamatras)
  • Accessibility of king
  • Justice, impartiality

4. Religious Tolerance:

  • Respect all sects
  • Gifts to Brahmins, Jains, Ajivikas, Buddhists
  • No persecution

5. Animal Welfare:

  • Prohibition of certain animal killings
  • Reduction of meat consumption
  • Veterinary hospitals
  • Conservation: Certain species protected (Rock Edict V lists species)

6. Moral Exhortation:

  • Respect parents, teachers
  • Kindness to servants
  • Charity
  • Truthfulness, self-control

7. Personal Confessions:

  • Kalinga remorse
  • Past mistakes
  • Transformation

8. Foreign Relations:

  • Dhamma sent to Greek kingdoms (Rock Edict XIII):
    • Antiochus II Theos (Syria)
    • Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Egypt)
    • Antigonus Gonatas (Macedonia)
    • Magas (Cyrene)
    • Alexander (Epirus)
  • Also to Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras (South India)
  • And to Sri Lanka (Mahinda, Sanghamitta sent)

UPSC SIGNIFICANCE OF EDICTS:

1. Historical:

  • Reliable source: Ashoka’s own words (not later mythologized accounts)
  • Dating: Chronology established
  • Geography: Empire’s extent known

2. Administrative:

  • Official system: Rajukas, Dhamma Mahamatras, Pradeshtras
  • Governance model: Welfare state, accessible ruler, justice

3. Social:

  • Values: Tolerance, compassion, non-violence
  • Welfare: Hospitals, infrastructure

4. Religious:

  • Pluralism: All religions respected
  • Buddhist patronage: But not exclusive
  • Spread of Buddhism: Missions to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia

5. Linguistic:

  • Brahmi script: Deciphered → All pre-Gupta inscriptions readable
  • Prakrits used: Shows language diversity

6. Artistic:

  • Pillar technology: Monolithic pillars (how transported, erected – mystery!)
  • Lion Capital (Sarnath): National Emblem of India

7. Environmental:

  • Conservation: Species protection (early environmentalism!)
  • Tree plantation: Ecological awareness

8. Modern Relevance:

  • Secularism: Ashoka’s tolerance model for India
  • Welfare state: Government responsibility for citizen welfare
  • Non-violence: Gandhian principle (Ahimsa)
  • Soft power: Cultural diplomacy, ethical foreign policy

E. BUDDHIST PATRONAGE

Ashoka’s Relationship with Buddhism:

Personal Faith:

  • Lay follower (Upasaka): Not a monk
  • Serious practitioner: Meditated, studied, followed precepts
  • Vegetarian (mostly): Reduced meat consumption drastically
  • Pilgrimage: Visited Buddhist holy sites

BUT: Dhamma ≠ Buddhism

  • Dhamma includes Buddhist principles but also Brahmanical, Jain elements
  • Tolerance: Supported ALL religions
  • Non-sectarian: Didn’t impose Buddhism

Patronage Activities:

1. Stupas:

  • 84,000 stupas built (tradition – exaggeration!)
  • Reality: Built/renovated major stupas:
    • Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) – enlarged (original smaller, pre-Ashoka)
    • Bharhut Stupa (MP)
    • Sarnath Stupa
    • Relics distributed: Opened original 8 stupas (containing Buddha’s relics), redistributed to many more

2. Pillars:

  • Erected pillars at Buddhist sites:
    • Lumbini (Buddha’s birthplace)
    • Sarnath (First Sermon)
    • Bodh Gaya (Enlightenment – pillar not surviving)
    • Nigali Sagar (past Buddha Konakamana’s stupa)

3. Rock-Cut Caves:

  • Barabar Caves (Bihar): Donated to Ajivikas (not Buddhists!)
    • Shows non-sectarian charity
  • Nagarjuni Caves: By Ashoka’s grandson Dasharatha

4. Monasteries (Viharas):

  • Built/supported monasteries
  • Land grants to Sangha

5. Third Buddhist Council (250 BCE, Pataliputra):

  • Convened by Ashoka (with monk Moggaliputta Tissa)
  • Purpose:
    • Purify Sangha (expel fake monks)
    • Settle doctrinal disputes
    • Compile Abhidhamma Pitaka
  • Result: Vibhajjavada (Theravada) declared orthodox

6. Missionary Activity:

Ashoka sent Buddhist missions to spread Dhamma:

To Sri Lanka (Most successful):

  • Mahinda (Ashoka’s son/brother – sources differ)
  • Sanghamitta (Ashoka’s daughter)
  • King Devanampiya Tissa converted
  • Buddhism became state religion of Sri Lanka
  • Bodhi Tree sapling taken (from Bodh Gaya; still at Anuradhapura!)
  • Theravada Buddhism flourished (continues today)

To Southeast Asia:

  • Suvarnabhumi (Myanmar/Thailand)
  • Sailendra Empire (Java, Sumatra)
  • Buddhism spread (though also Hindu-Buddhist mix)

To Hellenistic Kingdoms (Limited success):

  • Dharma-mahamatras sent to Greek kingdoms (Rock Edict XIII mentions)
  • Little evidence of conversion
  • Cultural exchange likely

To Central Asia:

  • Kashmir, Gandhara, Bactria
  • Buddhism spread (later influenced Silk Road transmission to China)

To South India:

  • Sent to Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra, Keralaputra
  • Limited impact initially (Buddhism didn’t dominate South like North)

Impact:

  • Buddhism transformed from regional Indian religion to world religion
  • Pali Canon preserved in Sri Lanka (Theravada stronghold)
  • Ashoka = Buddhist Emperor par excellence (like Constantine for Christianity)

F. ADMINISTRATION UNDER ASHOKA

Continued Mauryan System (Arthashastra model):

Central Government:

King (Ashoka):

  • Supreme authority: All decisions ultimately his
  • Accessible: Edicts mention “business can be reported anytime, anywhere” (even during meals, in harem!)
  • Tours (Dhamma-yatras): Visited provinces, met people
  • Personal involvement: In justice, welfare, administration

Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad):

  • Advisors: Inherited from Chandragupta’s system
  • Tirthas (High officials):
    • Mahamantri (Prime Minister)
    • Senapati (Commander-in-Chief)
    • Purohita (Royal Priest – ceremonial)
    • Yuvaraja (Crown Prince)

New Officials Under Ashoka:

1. Dhamma Mahamatras (Officers of Dhamma):

  • Created: 5th year of Ashoka’s reign (Rock Edict V)
  • Function:
    • Spread Dhamma (travel, teach)
    • Inspect welfare measures (hospitals, wells)
    • Ensure religious harmony
    • Report to king on people’s welfare
  • Everywhere: In capital, provinces, even foreign countries
  • Revolutionary: Welfare + moral officers (unique in ancient world)

2. Rajukas (District Officers):

  • Judicial + Administrative powers
  • Tour districts every 5 years
  • Duties (Pillar Edict IV):
    • Impartial justice
    • Welfare of people
    • Implement Dhamma
  • Accountable: To provincial governors and king

3. Pradeshtras (Provincial Heads):

  • Governors: Manage provinces
  • Often princes (Kumaras)
  • Report to center

4. Yuktas:

  • Junior officials: Assistants to higher officers
  • Various departments (revenue, judiciary, etc.)

Provincial Administration:

Five Provinces (Major):

ProvinceCapitalGovernor (Known)Region
UttarapathaTaxilaKunala (Ashoka’s son – later)Northwest (Punjab, Gandhara)
AvantirathaUjjainAshoka (as prince, under Bindusara)Western India (Malwa)
KalingaTosali (Dhauli)Not knownEastern coast (Odisha)
DakshinapathaSuvarnagiriNot knownSouth (Karnataka)
Magadha (Center)PataliputraDirect royal controlGangetic plains

Provincial Structure:

  • Kumara/Aryaputra (Prince/Governor): Head
  • Mahamatras (Officers): Assist governor
  • Autonomous to extent: But report to center

District and Local Administration:

Janapadas (Districts):

  • Headed by Rajukas
  • Sub-divided into smaller units

Villages:

  • Gramika (Village headman): Inherited position usually
  • Village assemblies: Some self-governance
  • Revenue collection: Village level

Urban Administration:

Nagarika (City Superintendent):

  • Administered cities
  • Law and order
  • Pataliputra: Special administration (capital city)

Judiciary:

King: Supreme judge (final appeal)

Hierarchy:

  • Dhamma Mahamatras: Minor disputes, moral offenses
  • Rajukas: District-level justice
  • Amatyas: Higher courts
  • King: Final court

Ashoka’s Justice (Pillar Edict IV):

  • Impartiality: No favor to rich/poor
  • Accessibility: Appeals possible
  • Humane: Death sentences required king’s confirmation; 3-day respite for condemned (Rock Edict IV) – time to arrange affairs, prepare mentally, or appeal

Espionage System:

Continued from Arthashastra:

  • Guptacharas (Secret agents): Internal intelligence
  • Spies: Checked officials’ honesty
  • Purpose: Prevent corruption, rebellion

G. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY UNDER MAURYANS

Agriculture:

Primary Sector: 70-80% population engaged

Land Types:

  • Sita (Crown land): Directly controlled by state
  • Private land: Owned by individuals (but taxed)

State Support:

  • Irrigation: State-built canals, tanks
    • Sudarshana Lake (Gujarat): Built pre-Mauryan, repaired under Chandragupta (Rudradaman’s Junagarh inscription mentions)
  • New land cultivation: Forests cleared, settled
  • Seeds, tools: Provided by state (sometimes)

Crops:

  • Cereals: Rice, wheat, barley
  • Pulses: Lentils, peas
  • Cash crops: Cotton, sugarcane, indigo
  • Fruits: Mango, banana, coconut

Taxation:

  • Bhaga: 1/6 of produce (standard); could be 1/4 in good land
  • Additional: Water tax (if irrigation used), various cesses

Animal Husbandry:

  • Cattle, sheep, goats
  • Elephants captured, trained (military use)

Trade and Commerce:

Internal Trade:

  • Excellent roads: Royal Highway (Pataliputra to Taxila – 2,500 km!)
    • Megasthenes described: Wide, shaded, with milestones
  • River routes: Ganga, Yamuna, Son, Indus
  • Markets: Regulated by state
  • Weights and measures: Standardized

External Trade:

Land Routes:

  • Northwest: To Central Asia, Persia, Greece (via Bactria)
  • Silk Road precursor: Luxury goods (silk, spices)

Maritime:

  • Ports: Tamralipti (Bengal), Bharuch (Gujarat), Sopara (Maharashtra)
  • Exports: Cotton, silk, spices, ivory, precious stones
  • Imports: Horses (from Arabia, Central Asia), gold, silver, wine
  • Trade with:
    • Egypt: Ptolemaic kingdom
    • Rome: Beginning (Republican period)
    • Southeast Asia: Suvarnabhumi (Burma, Thailand)

State Control:

  • Monopolies: Mining, salt, armaments, liquor (Arthashastra model)
  • Customs: Tolls at entry points
  • Regulation: Weights, measures, quality

Crafts and Industries:

Textiles:

  • Cotton: Major industry (world-famous Muslin from Bengal – Greek sources)
  • Silk: Produced, exported
  • Wool: Northwestern regions

Metallurgy:

  • Iron: Tools, weapons
  • Copper, Bronze: Utensils, coins
  • Gold, Silver: Jewelry, coins

Pottery:

  • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP): Characteristic Mauryan pottery
    • Black, glossy finish
    • High quality
    • Luxury ware

Bead-making:

  • Semi-precious stones
  • Export item

Ivory, Wood-carving:

  • Sculptures, furniture

State Workshops (Karkhanas):

  • Armaments
  • Textiles
  • Jewelry
  • Directly controlled

Guilds (Shrenis):

  • Craft associations: Potters, weavers, metallurgists
  • Functions:
    • Quality control
    • Training apprentices
    • Arbitration in disputes
    • Banking (some guilds)

Urban Centers:

Pataliputra (Capital):

  • Population: 400,000+ (estimate)
  • Size: 14 km long, 2.5 km wide (Megasthenes)
  • Fortifications: Wooden palisade, 64 gates, 570 towers, moat
  • Palace: Magnificent (compared to Persepolis by Megasthenes)
    • Wooden pillars, stone sculptures
    • Archaeological remains: Kumrahar (Patna) – remains of pillared hall

Other Cities:

  • Taxila: Northwest trade center, university
  • Ujjain: Western trade hub
  • Tosali: Kalinga capital
  • Suvarnagiri: Southern administrative center
  • Tamralipti: Eastern port

Social Structure:

Caste System:

  • Four Varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras
  • Rigidity: Less than later periods
  • Megasthenes described 7 classes (different classification):
    1. Philosophers (Brahmins)
    2. Farmers
    3. Herders
    4. Artisans
    5. Soldiers
    6. Inspectors/Spies
    7. Councilors/Administrators

Slavery:

  • Existed: But Megasthenes claims “Indians don’t enslave Indians” (too idealistic)
  • Reality: Slaves existed (prisoners of war, debt slaves, born slaves)
  • Arthashastra: Regulated slavery (rights, redemption possible)
  • Less harsh than contemporary Greece, Rome

Women’s Status:

Varied by Class:

Elite Women:

  • Royal women: Some influence (queen mothers respected)
  • Educated: Some (Megasthenes mentions women bodyguards of king!)
  • Property rights: Could inherit, own property

Common Women:

  • Patriarchal: Subordinate to The Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE)

Go to Home Page

Go to UPSC Govt. Site

Leave a Comment